This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Springer Series on Environmental Management. This includes polycarbons and polymers, making fungi a potentially remarkable solution to the fossil fuel and plastic waste problems. J Inorg Biochem 183:117136, Thirunavukarasua K, Edwinolivera NG, DuraiAnbarasana S, Gowthamana MK, Iefujib H, Kamini NR (2008) Removal of triglyceride soil from fabrics by a novel lipase from Cryptococcussp. Plastic Interactions with Pollutants and Consequences to Aquatic Ecosystems: What We Know and What We Do Not Know. 2004). Polymers 2022, 14, 4996 2 of 30 Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 39 Figure 1. Polypropylene is also referred to as polypropene, a thermoplastic polymer. The application of bioremediation in wastewater treatment plants for microplastics removal: a practical perspective. In aerobic biodegradation, the degradation involves in presence of oxygen which is also known as aerobic respiration. 1992). 1997). Degradation of conventional plastic wastes in the environment: A review on current status of knowledge and future perspectives of disposal. An enzyme that is similar to cutinase in function, i.e., isolated fromCryptococcussp. Pure Appl Chem 52:399407, Halina K, Dagmara O, Przemysaw M, Hanna C (2005) Effect of short wavelength UVirradiation on ageing of polypropylene/cellulose compositions. 2008 Oct;108(2):131-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025. Biodegradable bioplastics are fully degraded by microorganisms, without leaving visible toxic remainders. The soluble products of biodegradation (typically low molecular weight compounds) are absorbed or assimilated by the microorganisms. Rhizopus delemerlipase degraded 53% of the polyester type-polyurethanes (ES-PU) film after 24h reaction (Tokiwa and Calabia 2009). It is used for protective packaging such as packing food items and jewel cases and used for manufacturing cases for CDs, DVDs,containers, lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, etc. 2009),Candida rugosawere degrading poly (butylene succinate-co-hexamethylene succinate) copolymer. Google Scholar, Kumar S, Das ML, Rebecca J, Sharmila S (2013) Isolation and identification of LDPE degrading fungi from municipal solid waste. 11,33-37 In contrast to traditional plastics, biodegradable plastics can break down into low molecular weight compounds such as water, methane, and carbon dioxide by bacteria, fungi, and algae. Privacy 2017). The pro-oxidants are transient metal ions, added in form of stearate or other organic ligand complexes, mostly stearates of Fe3+, Mn2+ (Jakubowicz 2003), or Co2+ (Weiland et al. Biomolecules. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! MDPI Microorganisms 7:304, Bonhomme S, Cuer A, Delort A, Lemaire J, Sancelme M, Scott G (2003) Environmental biodegradation of polyethylene. Polym Degrad Stabil 94:13151324, Bhardwaj H, Gupta R, Tiwari A (2012) Microbial population associated with plastic degradation. 2007). Laccase can also involve in the oxidation of the hydrocarbon backbone of polyethylene (Sivan 2011). Biodegradation is defined as the method by which microbes like bacteria and fungi are employed for the breakdown of synthetic plastic waste. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:31943200, Webb JS, Nixon M, Eastwood IM, Greenhalgh M, Robson GD, Handley PS (2020) Fungal colonization and biodeterioration of plasticized polyvinyl chloride. Biodegradation is another procedure used for these technologies because they are eco-friendly, lead to thorough mineralization of organic and toxic pollutants at low cost and do not produce huge amount of sludge. Esterases are also involved in plastic degradation which is produced by both bacteria and fungi, esterase fromComamonas acidovoransis helpful in the degradation of low molecular weight PLA (plastic obtained from renewable resources). andMucor spp. Lichen, a fungi and algae symbiosis, was an unexpected sample from which fungal and bacterial PHB degraders were isolated. In this plastic biodegradation, fungi play a pivotal role, it acts on plastics by secreting some degrading enzymes, i.e., cutinase`, lipase, and proteases, lignocellulolytic enzymes, and also the presence of some pro-oxidant ions can cause effective degradation. 2010). Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. PMC Toxicology. 2009;52:233242. 2021). ecological importance of fungi participating in the thermophilic biodegradation of polyesters is not well understood. 1). Google Scholar, Phua SK, Castillo E, Anderson JM, Hiltner A (1987) Biodegradation of a polyurethane in vitro. Compared with other degradation processes, the biodegradation process is the most effective and best way for plastic degradation due to its non-polluting mechanism, eco-friendly nature, and cost-effectiveness. Biocatal Biotransform 25:171177. K-/+N. Fungi easily adapt to severe environmental constraints and can be easily manipulated with different problems [15]. Polym Degrad Stabil 48:275289, Whitney PJ (1996) A comparison of two methods for testing defined formulations of PVC for resistance to fungal colonisation with two methods for the assessment of their biodegradation. Bioresources and Bioprocessing Foam biodegradation is carried out by the enzymes associated with some microorganisms like bacteria and fungi (Gautam et al. CYP isoforms are anchored in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, having their active sites connected to both the cytosolic and membrane environments so they can uptake substrate from both surroundings (rejber et al. PE, PU, PET, PS and nylon enzymes are major groups involved in plastic biodegradation. 2017). Some fungal species that are well known to produce lipases and are involved in the degradation of plastics, i.e.,Rhizopus delemer, Candida antarctica (Vertommen et al. IJBT 7(1):922, Awaja F, Pavel D (2005) Recycling of PET. 2012). This demonstrates that some fungal species have a specialized effect against plastic debris biodegradation. Process Biochem 43:701706, Tirupati S, Buddolla V, Akula SL, SaiGopal DVR (2016) Production of laccase by Cochliobolus sp. The. In this regard, some insects, bacteria and fungi have been shown to ingest these polymers and convert them into environmentally friendly carbon compounds. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2005.06.015, Vivi VK, Martins-Franchetti SM, Attili-Angelis D (2018) Biodegradation of PCL and PVC: Chaetomium globosum (ATCC 16021) activity. Environ Sci Technol 37(19):44944499, Shimao M (2001) Biodegradation of plastics. To give some examples, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), in 2018, 12.2% of municipal solid waste in the United States was made of plastics, the majority of which (75%) were . [ 16] it was expected that fungi capable of degrading the plastic polymers would display a zone of clearance ('halo') around the growing cultures as a result of enzymatic plastic degradation by diffusing enzymes excreted by the fungal hyphae, or in the case of PE, grow on the plastic granules [ 21 ]. The intracellular enzymatic system acts as an internal mechanism for detoxification and plays a major role in fungal adaption (Jeon et al. Some common fungal species which are showing biodegradation of polycarbonates are Fusarium,Ulocladium, Chrysosporium, andPenicillium(Arefian et al. AMB Expr 5:10, Zafar U, Houlden A, Robson GD (2013) Fungal communities associated with the biodegradation of polyester polyurethane buried under compost at different temperatures. Appl Environ Microbiol 85:114, Article The broad distribution of activity observed and the unprecedented case of anaerobic growth using PUR as the sole carbon source suggest that endophytes are a promising source of biodiversity from which to screen for metabolic properties useful for bioremediation. Plastics are one of the synthetic polymers or man-made polymers [1]. Volatile fungal metabolites are responsible for various odors and may contribute to a "sick building syndrome" (SBS) with a negative effect on the heath of building. 2000). To make the polymer surface more hydrophilic, pre-treatments such as UV radiation, gamma sterilization, or thermal treatments are followed (Koutny et al. Google Scholar, Alisch-Mark M, Herrmann A, Zimmermann W (2006) Increase of the hydrophilicity of polyethylene terephthalate fibers by hydrolases from Thermomonospora fusca and Fusarium solani f. sp. 2014;172(5):2324-2337. doi: 10.1007/s12010-013-0685-1 1.2 This test method is designed to be applicable to all plastic materials that are not inhibitory to the bacteria present in the activated sludge. 2000). Papain and urease are the two proteolytic enzymes that were found to degrade medical polyester polyurethane by hydrolysis of urethane and urea linkages by producing free amine and hydroxyl groups (Phua et al. Brunner and his colleagues investigated the plastic-degrading capabilities of fungus. Polym Int 48:346352, Kolattukudy PE, Brown L (1975) Fate of naturally occurring epoxy acids: a soluble epoxide hydrase, which catalyzes cis hydration, from Fusarium solani pisi. Cookies policy. The extracellular enzymatic system consists of a hydrolytic system that produces hydrolases that are involved in polysaccharide degradation and the unspecific oxidative system involved in breaking down complex structures, such as lignin degradation (Snchez 2009). Teijin Frontier has improved its biodegradation rate without impairing strength, moldability or other practical properties. algae, and fungi have the ability . Ligninolytic enzymes, includes LiP, MnP, and laccase (Wu et al. In addition, genetically engineered robust enzyme systems could be an effective strategy to reduce plastic waste. Cladosporium pseudo cladosporioides, Cladosporium tenuissimum, Cladosporium asperulatum, Cladosporium montecillanum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium chrysogenumwere also reported for degrading PUR (lvarez-Barragn et al. The mechanism of biodegradation involves the action of microbial enzymes on the surface of the plastics. Int J Appl Res 3(3):693695, Gautam R, Bassi AS, Yanful EK (2007) Candida rugosa lipase-catalyzed polyurethane degradation in aqueous medium. Therefore, it is essential to develop eco-friendly techniques to get rid of this plastic waste accumulation. 2013). Biodegradation occurs through the action of bacteria, fungi, and yeast, which produce enzymes that cleave the plastics' polymeric chains [ 12 ]. 2017; Tokiwa et al. In this process of biodegradation, plastic reacts with oxygen from the air and then the microorganisms, facilitate this degradation process by secreting polyethylene degrading enzymes to. Not only are fungi naturally occurring and therefore 100% biodegradable, it also has shown biodegradation properties, which means it can help to biodegrade other materials. PLoS ONE 8:717720, Fischer I, Schmitt WF, Porth H, Allsopp MW, Vianello G (2014) Poly (vinyl chloride). Fungi are the dominant agents . Academic Press, Cambridge. The degradation of plastics by some fungi occurs through the intracellular and extracellular enzymatic systems. Int J Hyg Environ Health 212(1):6166, Munari (2019) Enzymatic hydrolysis of poly (1,4-butylene 2,5-thiophenedicarboxylate) (PBTF) and poly(1,4-butylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate) (PBF) films: a comparison of mechanisms, Environ Int 130: 104852. Researchers can access related articles from current and back volumes by purchasing access to these collections. Required fields are marked *. PubMed pisi. The maximum range of lignin peroxides are produced inAspergillus nigerand Aspergillus flavus (Bholay et al. ASM J Appl Environ Microbiol 66(8), Wei R, Oeser T, Then J, Kuhn N, Barth M, Schmidt J, Zimmermann W (2014) Functional characterization and structural modeling of synthetic polyester-degrading hydrolases from Thermomonospora curvata. PubMed Central Biotechnol Adv 26:246265, Shang J, Chai M, Zhu Y (2003) Photocatalytic degradation of polystyrene plastic under fluorescent light. In biodegradation, the process is initiated by micro-organisms, i.e., bacteria and fungi. Ali SS, Elsamahy T, Koutra E, Kornaros M, El-Sheekh M, Abdelkarim EA, Zhu D, Sun J. Sci Total Environ. The usage of polythene is increased at a rate of 12% annum and approximately 140 million tonnes of synthetic plastic polymers are produced worldwide annually (Roy et al. The formation of mushrooms from the plastic as a substrate is a very new approach to control plastic pollution, and the productivity of mushrooms can be increased by altering the composition of the substrate (Luz et al. PLoS ONE 8(8):e69386. Lagauskas, Levinskait L, Peiulyt D. Micromycetes as deterioration agents of polymeric materials. The PE waste has a negative impact on marine life resulting in the death of millions of animals. Biodegradation of buried crude oil in soil microcosm by fungal co-culture. The current methods for eliminating these wastes (incineration, landfilling, and recycling) come at massive costs, are unsustainable, and put more burden on our environment. 2013). Environ Sci Processes Impacts 17:15131521, Glaser JA (2019) Biological degradation of polymers in the Environment. 2019). in the Biodegradation of Plastic Wastes Writtik Maity1 & Subhasish Maity1 & Soumen Bera2 & Amrita Roy1 Received: 22 September 2020/Accepted: 22 March 2021/ . FEMS Microbiol Lett 275(1):122129, Article In particular, actinomycetes produce hydrolytic enzymes that allow them to grow on different polymers by facilitating the degradation of high molecular weight compounds into simpler ones [ 13 ]. 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Photodegradation and thermo-oxidation are categorized under abiotic degradation, whereas biotic degradation involves the action of microbes. 2020),Chaetomium globosum (ATCC 16021)(Vivi et al. 2018). Cytochrome P450 family are heme-containing mono-oxygenases that are involved in catalyzing various enzymatic reactions (Shin et al. <> Bookshelf Peroxidases are enzymes that fall under the oxidoreductase class which catalyzes oxidationreduction reactions by the action of free radicals on compounds to form oxidized and polymerized compounds. Polym Degrad Stabil 91:11051116, Ali MI, Ahmed S, Robson G et al (2014) Isolation and molecular characterization of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic degrading fungal isolates. The special ability of these laccases is they oxidize lignin so they involve in degrading lignin (Osma et al. 2019). 2017). Lipases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of lipids they are also the subclass of esterases enzyme. Biodegradation of plastic polymers by fungi: a brief review. Anthrobotrys oligosporasynthesis serine protease that can degrade polylactic acid (Ozsagiroglu et al. Google Scholar, Arefian M, Zia M, Tahmourespour A et al (2013) Polycarbonate biodegradation by isolated molds using clear-zone and atomic force microscopic methods. Here's how you know AMB Express 4:44, Weiland M, Daro A, David C (1995) Biodegradation of thermally oxidized polyethylene. Elixir Chem Engg 64:1915919164, Usha R, Sangeetha T, Palaniswamy M (2011) Screening of polyethylene degrading microorganisms from garbage soil. To be truly labeled biodegradable, the plastic must degrade into carbon dioxide, water, biomass and / or mineral salts when exposed to air, moisture and microbes. They are in rigid and flexible foam forms, varnishes and coatings, adhesives, electrical compounds, and fibers, such asspandexand polyurethane laminate (Gama et al. Biotechnol Lett 28:681685, Alshehrei F (2017) Biodegradation of synthetic and natural plastic by microorganisms. Disclaimer, National Library of Medicine Low-density polyethylene is processed by applying high pressure (10005000atm) and high temperature (520 kelvins), whereas high-density polyethylene requires low pressure (67atm) and low temperature (333343K) (Lee et al. This study aimed at isolating and identifying bacteria and fungi with the capacity to degrade low density polyethylene (LDPE). 77(17):60766084, Russell JR (2011) Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi. Biodegradation is a natural process that breaks down everything from yard waste to crude oil. Biochem Res Int 2016:10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9519527, Tokiwa Y, Calabia BP (2009) Biodegradability of plastics. These species include Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Aspergillus flavus, abundantly found in garbage sites and soil. Biores Technol 96(12):13571363, Yamamoto-Tamura K, Hiradate S, Watanabe T et al (2015) Contribution of soil esterase to biodegradation of aliphatic polyester agricultural mulch film in cultivated soils. Synthetic plastics like polyethylene (PE) are non-biodegradable and take 1000 years to completely degrade in natural conditions. In general, this biodegradation of plastics involves the growth of fungi on the surface of plastic, where plastic is consumed as a food source by the fungi under the influence of environmental factors, such as temperature and pH. Abstract: Plastic is a broad name given to different polymers with high molecular weight, which can be degraded by various processes. The process becomes more effective when photodegradation and thermo-oxidative degradation is followed by biodegradation, because as by photodegradation and thermo-oxidative degradation, the plastic debris will be broken-down from complex to simple material so biodegradation on such material will be easy and does not require much time. In general, this biodegradation of plastics involves the growth of fungi on the surface of plastic, where plastic is consumed as a food source by the fungi under the influence of environmental factors, such as temperature and pH. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 71(3):276288, Iiyoshi Y, Tsutsumi Y, Nishida T (1998) Polyethylene degradation by lignin-degrading fungi and manganese peroxidase. Appl Environ Microbiol 57:678685, Levchik SV, Weil ED (2004) A review on thermal decomposition and combustion of thermoplastic polyesters. No biodegradation methods are absolute in the treatment of all textile dyes, which leads to structure-dependent degradation. Wiley, Germany, Frazer AC (1994) O-methylation and other transformations of aromatic compounds by acetogenic bacteria. Environ Pollut 225:469480. Even more damaging is their impact on the aquatic ecosystems as they cause entanglement, ingestion and intestinal blockage in aquatic animals. SG reviewed overall manuscript preparation and supported the study. Polym Degrad Stab 81:441452, Brunner I, Fischer M, Rthi J, Stierli B, Frey B (2018) Ability of fungi isolated from plastic debris floating in the shoreline of a lake to degrade plastics. 9, 42 (2022). 5.2 Soil is an extremely species-rich source of inoculum for evaluation of the biodegradability of plastics in the environment. The biodegradation can be partial or complete. The capability of degrading green polyethylene and oxo-biodegradable (D2W) plastics without prior physical treatment was observed inPleurotus ostreatus. NG007 degraded 15.7%, 19.4%, and 74.4% styrofoam within 30 d, respectively. The degradation of the synthetic plastic mediated by the microbes is known as biodegradation 15, 45, 46. 2022 Oct 13;14(20):4299. doi: 10.3390/polym14204299. J Environ Chem Eng 3:462473, Seymour RB (1989) Polymer science before and after 1899: notable developments during the lifetime of Maurtis Dekkar. Therefore, the polymers slowly get depolymerized and degradation will be compiled by mineralization process, where H2O (water), CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH2 (methane) are end products (Frazer 1994; Montazer et al. Polystyrene is a thermoplastic polymer, aromatic hydrocarbon polymer which is composed of monomers, i.e., styrene (John Scheirs 2003). Google Scholar, Alariqi SAS, Pratheep Kumar A, Rao BSM, Singh RP (2006) Biodegradation of sterilised biomedical polyolefins under composting and fungal culture environments. Some fungal species belonging to the genus Aspergillus are used more frequently in the biodegradation of plastic waste. 2010). 2015). However, considering their abundance in the environment and their specificity in attacking plastics, biodegradation of plastics by microorganisms and enzymes seems to be the most effective process. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.09.005, Coe JM, Andersson S, Rogers DB (1997) Marine debris in the Caribbean Region. It is reported that Polyethylene constitutes 64% of total synthetic plastics as it is been used for manufacturing bottles, carry bags, disposable articles, garbage containers, margarine tubs, milk jugs, and water pipes. Folia Microbiol. Biochim Biophys Acta 1620:17. Sangale, a botanist from Savitribai Phule Pune University suggested that some strains of fungi including Aspergillus terreusand Aspergillus sydowiiact as best PE deteriorating fungi. Biodegradation. Google Scholar, Eberl A, Heumann S, Brueckner T, Araujo R, Cavaco-Paulo A, Kaufmann F et al (2009) Enzymatic surface hydrolysis of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and bis(benzoyloxyethyl)terephthalate by lipase and cutinase in the presence of surface active molecules. Esterase, derived fromXepiculopsis graminea, andPenicillium griseofulvumreported degrading polyurethane (Brunner et al. The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. 2015; Milstein et al. Purpureocillium lilacinumandCurvularia senegalensisare a group of fungi that degradepoly (butylene succinate-co-adipate)and polyurethane(Yamamoto-Tamura et al. 2014). Pleurotus eryngii, Lentinula edodes, fungi showed the ability to degrade BPA (Bisphenol-A) and DEHP (di-2-ethyhexylphthalate) plastics by secretion of manganese peroxidase (MnP) enzyme (Hock et al. Even practicing different methods, plastic degradation takes sufficient time to complete the process. Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Penicillium, Phanerochaetehave been reported for polyethylene degradation (Danso et al. Adv Biosci Biotechnol 2(2):5258, Mathur G, Prasad R (2012) Degradation of polyurethane by Aspergillus flavus (ITCC 6051) isolated from soil. Before The figure is created according to the data from OECD [1]. The growth of many fungi can also cause small-scale swelling and bursting, as the fungi penetrate the polymer solids (Griffin 1980). This review articles covers the list of biodegradation of plastics, some factors that affect their biodegradability, plastic types and their application and plastic degrading by fungi are discussed. The potentiality of fungi in biodegradation is known as mycoremediation. In: Drake HL (ed) Acetogenes. Bentham is offering subject-based scholarly content collections which are tailored to meet specific research needs. Of all the methods of handling plastic wastes, biodegradation is recognized as the most promising and environmentally safe method of processing plastic wastes (Gan & Zhang 2019). This polyurethane is degraded by the following fungi, i.e.,Gliocladium roseum, Aspergillus spp., Emericella spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp., Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium pannorum, Nectria gliocladiodes, Penicillium ochrochloron, Aureobasidium pullulans, Rhodotorula aurantiaca, and Kluyvermyces spp(Cosgrove et al. The biodegradation efficiency is increased by using pro-oxidant and starch as additives in polyethylene to make it susceptible to microbial attack. The mushrooms grow on the surface of the substrate by absorbing the nutrients from the substrate. and transmitted securely. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-012-9572-4, Milstein O, Gersonde R, Huttermann A, Chen MJ, Meister JJ (1992) Fungal biodegradation of lignopolystyrene graft copolymers. These fungi will secrete enzymes, such as cutinase, lipase, and proteases, carboxylesterases, esterases, lignocellulolytic enzymes, and some pro-oxidant ions which will degrade the plastics. Polyurethane isa polymercomposed oforganicunits which are joined bycarbamate(urethane) links. Sci Rep 9:16038. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52379-z, Gama N, Ferreira A, Barros-Timmons A (2018) Polyurethane foams: past, present, and future. Microbial depolymerases, hydrolases, and peroxidases are the key enzymes in biodegradation. J Wood Sci 44:222229. Compared with other degradations, the biodegradation method is mostly preferred due to its pollution-free mechanism and eco-friendly process. Epub 2022 Oct 13. Recently, a special focus has been given to the endophytic microorganisms that live inside the plant tissue without causing any immediate, overt effects (Hirsch and Braun 1992 ). https://doi.org/10.1080/10242420701379734, Loredo-Trevio A, Garca G, Velasco-Tllez A, Rodrguez-Herrera R, Aguilar CN (2011) Polyurethane foam as substrate for fungal strains. 2021 Jun 1;771:144719. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144719. 2007). PLoS ONE 13(8):114, Bryant JA, Clemente TM, Viviani DA, Fong AA, Thomas KA, Kemp P, Karl DM, White AE, DeLong EF (2016) Diversity and activity of communities inhabiting plastic debris in the North Pacific Gyre. Penicillium-derived laccase potentially involves in PE breakdown (Abd El-Rehim et al. Trametes versicolor, Pleurotus ostreatus, Streptomyces, P. ostreatus and T. pubescensproduce laccase that degrades polyethylene (Osma et al. 15, Hofrichter M, Ullrich R (2006) Heme-thiolate haloperoxidases: versatile biocatalysts with biotechnological and environmental significance. A degradable drainage board is a vertical drainage made of natural fibre (straw, jute, and coconut) or biodegradable polymeric synthetic materials, which have good engineering properties such as discharge capacity and tensile strength during construction. Phanerochaete chrysosporiumNCIM 1170 a white-rot fungus showed degrading properties towards polycarbonates (Artham and Doble 2010). Thus, recent focus has been placed more on the potential of biological systems to degrade synthetic plastics. In this review, we described various fungi involved in the biodegradation of different types of plastic polymers and summarized recent studies on enzymes that are produced by various fungi for the biodegradation of plastics. The Indian Cow. Bjerkandera adustaTBB-03 was identified for its ability to degrade HDPE under lignocellulose substrate treatment by laccase production (Bo Ram Kang 2019). 2012). . Anaerobic degradation occurs in absence of oxygen. PubMed Central 2013), andCandida rugosa(Gautam et al. Plastic waste has gained remarkable research attention due to its accumulation, associated environmental issues, and impact on living organisms. Curr Opin Biotechnol 12:242247, Shin J, Kim JE, Lee YW, Son H (2018) Fungal Cytochrome P450s and the P450 complement (CYPome) of Fusarium graminearum. These enzymes transfer electrons from organic substrates to molecular oxygen (laccases) by oxidationreduction reactions using H2O2 as an electron-accepting co-substrate or by epoxidation, aromatic preoxygenation, and sulfoxidation (Karich et al. There have been a number of models developed for the interaction of solid The use of microorganisms in establishing ultimate biodegradation (to carbon substrates with enzymes, which could potentially serve as the basis for more complex dioxide and water) is well known and used commonly in standardised tests with modelling . https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-9861(75)90425-7, Kolattukudy PE, Purdy RE, Maiti IB (1981) Cutinases from fungi and pollen. Annually 500 billion to 1 trillion polythene bags are being used daily all over the world. EUROLAB, with its state-of-the-art accredited laboratories and expert team, provides precise and fast testing services within the scope of CEN TR 14823 test. Pol J Environ Studies 6:17771782, Patel C, Yadav S, Rahi S, Dave A (2013) Studies on biodiversity of fungal endophytes of indigenous monocotaceous and dicotaceous plants and evaluation of their enzymatic potentialities. Google Scholar, Ronqvist M, Xie W, Lu W, Gross RA (2009) Cutinase-catalyzed hydrolysis of poly(ethyleneterephthalate). pp. Several strategies, such as random mutagenesis and site-directed mutagenesis, genome editing, advanced computational modelling, computational genomics, are the recent strategies to address enzyme engineering. Keywords: 2008). 2021)fungi are identified for their ability in the degradation of Polypropylene. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. White rot fungiPleurotus ostreatus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, andTrametes versicolor, and the brown-rot fungiGloeophyllum trabeumwere capable of depolymerization of polystyrene when coincubated together with lignin (Krueger et al. Some important fungi species which showed their ability to absorb nutrients from the plastic polymers they arePleurotus abalones, Pleurotus ostreatus, Agaricus bisporusthese species are by secretion of enzyme laccases utilized the polyethylene and polystyrene as carbon sources and showed growth by degrading the plastics. Correspondence to The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. They discovered over 100 fungus strains from plastic waste collected around Lake Zurichs shores. 2014),Penicillium funiculosum ATCC 9644, Trichoderma viride ATCC 13631, Paecilomyces variotii CBS 62866, Aspergillus niger (ATCC 6275)(Whitney 1996),Aureobasidium pullulans(Webb et al. Edible fungi/Edible Mushrooms which are considered macrofungi are fleshy and fruit bodies which is rich in their nutritional benefits. J Appl Environ Microbiol 5:819, CAS Some yeast-like fungiRhodotorula aurantiaca and Kluyveromyces sppalso showed some degrading properties towards polyvinylchloride. 2019). Though many studies identified the degrading abilities in fungi very few shows effective biodegradation. The difference between biodegradable and compostable is that in the case of compostable plastics, (1) the "degradation" process is activated through human intervention by placing the plastic in a composting setting or infrastructure and (2) the end residue will be classified as compost. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:58175824, renar B, Petri (2011) Cytochrome P450 enzymes in the fungal kingdom. 2012). . Compared with PET and PS, polyvinylchloride (PVC) is considered to be a hard plastic for biodegradation. Am Soc Microbiol Appl Environ Microbiol. November 2015),Coriolus versicolor,(Kord et al. 1995), and Mn (Jakubowicz 2003), and can enhance the photo- and thermo-oxidation, PE chains may lead to radical reactions that lead to cleavage in polymer chains (Koutny et al. Accessibility Your email address will not be published. In the place of other substrates, plastic films/sheets are used as substrate. Copyright 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Anaerobic fungi in the absence of oxygen utilize other sources as their electron acceptor, such as sulfate, nitrate, iron, manganese, and carbon dioxide for biodegradation (Alshehrei 2017). Springer Nature. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines it as, "A process by which microbial organisms transform or alter (through metabolic or enzymatic action) the structure of chemicals introduced into the environment." and < 10% with Rhizopus sp.) CAS J Macromol Sci Chem 26(1989):10231032, Shah AA, Hasan F, Hameed A, Ahmed S (2008) Biological degradation of plastics: a comprehensive review. Plastic waste accumulation in the environment is a serious concern and poses a threat to the ecosystem. The review provides eminent information on various fungi which are involved in degrading different types of plastic polymers, and specific degrading enzymes produced by various fungi which are involved in the biodegradation mechanism. Some enzymes in fungi help to disintegrate the polymers into simpler components (monomers and dimers). Even more damaging is their impact on the aquatic ecosystems as they cause entanglement, ingestion and intestinal blockage in aquatic animals. CAS These elements can be as transition metals, such as Fe, Co (Weiland et al. Optimization of Polystyrene Biodegradation by. Int J Biochem Mol Biol 1(1):3650, CAS Degradation of complex polymers into smaller units by microbes with CH2, CO2, H2O, and biomass as their by-products. PubMed Central Curr Opin Biotechnol 22:422426, Souza PMD, Bittencourt MLDA, Caprara CC, Freitas MD, Almeida RPCD, Silveira D et al (2015) A biotechnology perspective of fungal proteases. 2022 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. The increase in plastic pollution greatly affects living organisms, biodegradation of plastics by fungi can help to decrease the problem. Biodegradation is the processing of plastic waste using microorganisms (Verma & Gupta 2019). were also identified for their ability to degrade PET and PS foam (Umamaheswari and Murali 2013)Curvularia specieshyphae had adhered to and penetrated the polymers structure (Motta et al. Zampolli J, Orro A, Vezzini D, Di Gennaro P. Microorganisms. The biodegradation process depends on several factors such as microbial activity, the surface area of the polymer, temperature, pH, molecular It is used in manufacturing electronic components such as TVs screens computer screens, compact discs, DVDs, automotive, aircraft, and some security elements such as bulletproof sheets, eyeglasses/lenses. To summarize, biodegradation is afriendly method that offers an alternativeway to handle waste plastic materials without causing harm to the environment. 2003). Front Microbiol 8:1463, Kawai F, Kawabata T, Oda M (2019) Current knowledge on enzymatic PET degradation and its possible application to waste stream management and other fields. 2004), these facilitate cleavage of molecules into smaller fragments containing hydrophilic oxygenated groups that can be easily degraded by microbes (Shang et al. Global plastic use by region. Biotechnol Adv 31:17541767. 2022 Nov;45(11):1865-1878. doi: 10.1007/s00449-022-02793-x. J Biotechnol 143:207212. TwoPestalotiopsis microsporaisolates were observed to grow on PUR as the sole carbon source under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, effective degradation activity was observed under anaerobic growth using PUR (Jonathan and Russell 2011). 2018). sp(Raaman et al. Plastic disposal is one of the greatest problems facing the environment today, as vast amounts of synthetic plastic remain non degradable. PubMed Central Int Biodeterior Biodeg Radation 88:8390, Romero E, Speranza M, Garca-Guinea J, Martnez T (2007) Mara Jess Martnez, an anamorph of the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta capable of colonizing and degrading compact disc components. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. 2018; Shin et al. Bbaproteins Proteom 1814:2935, da Luz JMR, Paes SA, Nunes MD, da Silva MdCS, Kasuya MCM (2013) Degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic by Pleurotus ostreatus. Plastic polymers are non-degradable solid wastes that have become a great threat to the whole world and degradation of these plastics would take a few decades. Aspergillus nigerwas also identified for its quite slow growth with visible signs of deterioration occurring only after 30days (Russell 2011). BIOM3, and Pestalotiopsis sp. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the This present review gives current knowledge regarding different species of fungi that are involved in the degradation of plastics by their different enzymatic mechanisms to degrade different forms of plastic polymers. 1991). J Microbiol Biotech Res 1(4):131136, Raaman N, Rajitha N, Jayshree A, Jegadeesh R (2012) Biodegradation of plastic by Aspergillus spp. The unspecific oxidative system can oxidize a wide range of substrates. 2014), these are low cost, and show biological and chemical resistance. Plastic Biodegradation Potential of Fungi Biodegradation is the degradation of compounds and substrates mediated by living organisms, most commonly microorganisms. Types of Plastic Plastic wastes have adversely affected life on earth, primarily through their undesirable accumulation in landfills, leaching into the soil, increased greenhouse gas emission, etc. Google Scholar, Butnaru E, Darie-Ni RN, Zaharescu T, Balae T, Tnase C, Hitruc G et al (2016) Gamma irradiation assisted fungal degradation of the polypropylene/biomass composites. Fungi use these components as a carbon source, converting PE waste to CO2, water, and methane. Aerobic fungi use oxygen as an electron acceptor, and breakdown complex organic compounds into smaller organic compounds often producing co2 and water as end products (Seymour et al. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad. Polym Adv Technol 15:691700, Liebminger S, Eberl A, Sousa F, Heumann S, Fischer-Colbrie G, Cavaco-Paulo A et al (2007) Hydrolysis of PET and bis-(benzoyloxyethyl) terephthalate with a new polyesterase from Penicillium citrinum. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069386, Danso D, Chow J, Streit WR (2019) Plastics: environmental and bio technological perspectives on microbial degradation. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Abd El-Rehim HA, Hegazy El-Sayed A, Ali AM, Rabie AM (2004) Synergistic effect of combining UV-sunlightsoil burial treatment on the biodegradation rate of LDPE/starch blends. Poylm Polym Composit 29(5): 303310, Bergeret A, Ferry L, Ienny P (2009) Influence of the fibre/matrix interface on ageing mechanisms of glass fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites (PA-6,6, PET, PBT) in a hygrothermal environment. Due to this plastic pollution in the marine environment minimum of 267 species are being affected which includes sea turtles (86%) and seabirds (44%) (Coe et al. 3. PLoS ONE 10:e0131773, Article 2016), which have been found as a serious problem of indigestion, gastrointestinal blockages and reproductive problems in marine organisms. 1998). 2007),Penicillium citrinum(Liebminger et al. TSRSS wrote a part of the manuscript and polished the manuscript along with reviewing. These plastics which form particulate matter by UV irradiation and weathering increase surface area and mobility and, therefore, easily incorporate into the food chain causing serious effects to all the living organisms (Bonhomme et al. 2017). Aspergillus oryzae, C. antarctica, and Penicillium citrinumare among other fungal enzymes that have been investigated for activity on PET (Zimmermann and Billig 2010; Kawai et al. 1987). Wiley, pp. Bioprocess. As high molecular weight is a large compound that cannot be transported across the cellular membrane of the fungi thus it primarily depolymerizes it into small monomers before they cross the cell membrane (Shah et al. Explanation: Biodegradation will be more for low molecular weights and less crystallinity. PVC is similar to the structure of chlorophenol compounds. In additional, we discussed the effective degradation of fungi on selective plastics and plastic degradation by edible fungi. CAS https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00521967, Jakubowicz I (2003) Evaluation of degradability of biodegradable polyethylene (PE). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-007-9354-1, Geweret B, Plassmann MM, MacLeod M (2015) Pathways for degradation of plastic polymers floating in the marine environment. B. Laycock et al. Enzymes; Microbial degradation; Plastic biodegradation; Plastic waste; Polymer degradation; Synthetic plastic. Strain S-2 was identified for its effective degradation of high molecular weight plastic, i.e., polylactic acid (PLA) based plastic (Gemeren et al. Process Biochem 59:8490. Pro-oxidant ions are chemical elements that induce oxidative stress by releasing reactive oxygen species or by inhibiting the antioxidant system. The enzyme activity is mainly dependent on the solvent properties and the enzyme activity increases with polarity and decreases with the viscosity of the solvent in the biodegradation of polymers (Patel et al. Biodegradation of plastic polymers has been one of the current focussed areas of research on solving plastic pollution. 2009). its rigid and strong polymer. Polyethylene is chemically represented as (C2H4) n. PE is a combination of polymers of ethylene with different values of n. They are low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene. CAS Hence, the biological agent utilizes the synthetic polymer as a substrate for. After treating and incubation of 30 days in a shaking incubator, the final weight R2 of 13.4 mg was observed to have a significant weight loss of 4 mg and biodegradation of LDPE up to 22.9%, as shown in Table 2 and Figure 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/10_2010_87, Department of Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, 530003, India, Department of Biotechnology, Pydah Degree College, Affiliated to Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India, Department of Human Genetics, College of Science and Technology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, 530003, India, You can also search for this author in In the past few years, many techniques like landfilling, recycling, incineration, biodegradation, and degradation have been used to dispose of polyethylene waste. Some fungal species which showed PVC degradation areCochliobolus sp. Geotrichumspp., are identified by their aryl alcohol oxidases and Mn2+-oxidizing peroxidase enzymes and degrading polycarbonates (Romero et al. 2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2016.07.023, Chen S, Su L, Chen J, Wu J (2013) Cutinase: characteristics, preparation and application. Singh B (2005) Harmful effect of plastic in animals. Genetic engineering could be a preferred strategy to enhance the ability of fungi in biodegradation of plastic polymers. 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